H5N1 Avian virus Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

H5N1 Avian virus - Essay Example Moreover, this virus also has the ability to undergo antigenic drifts and antigenic shifts. The emergence of new strains of Avian influenza virus is of major public health concern because of the impending threat of a pandemic that it poses. Currently, the virus does not possess the ability of being transmitted amongst humans and it has been postulated that one this quality is acquired it would lead to potentially devastating consequences in the form of a pandemic. Till date, no vaccine for the prevention of H5N1 infection amongst humans exists. Moreover, the treatment options for infection are also limited viz. oseltamivir and zanamivir. Therefore, further research needs to be undertaken in order to develop new vaccines against these organisms and better medications to combat the infection if once contracted. Moreover, vigilant surveillance of outbreaks and epidemics of bird flu is also imperative. Avian Influenza or Bird Flu, as it commonly referred to, is an infection which is caused by the H5N1 virus. The natural hosts of this virus are wild birds, in particular water fowls, who carry these viruses in their intestines while themselves remaining asymptomatic (Auewaraku 404). ... Recently, H5N1 virus is not only leading to an increasing number of epizootics, but has also been implicated in several epidemics in humans. The mode of transmission of this virus has been described as being feco-oral amongst birds, whereas humans contract the disease via contact with airborne particles from infected poultry or while contact with the poultry or their fecal matter e.g. during food preparation (Fleming 1066). The first human infection with H5N1 was witnessed in 1997 in Hong Kong, as a result of which six out of the eighteen people affected died. Eversince, several similar outbreaks of human infection have been observed in various regions of the world and this has become an important public health concern (Auewaraku 404). At present, there are two different clades of the H5N1 which have been identified to be circulating amongst poultry. Amongst these, three subgroups from the clade 2 have been shown to infect humans viz. subclades 2.1, 2.2, and 2.3 Centers for Disease C ontrol and Prevention). Infections in humans appear on a spectrum, ranging in variety and severity from relatively milder infections such as conjunctivitis to potentially serious ones such as pneumonia and can even lead to death (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention). The increasing outbreaks of human infection with H5N1 are of prime concern as this organism is highly pathogenic. It has a unique ability to infect humans and this poses a threat to the human race as this virus might have the potential to evolve into a form which is transmissible from person to person (Auewaraku 404). In the past, the world has witnessed several outbreaks of influenza, causing significant morbidity and mortality. If a new strain of this virulent organism

Alternative Energy Essay Example for Free

Alternative Energy Essay Alternative Energy whether used for transportation or utilities such as generating electricity for home or business is a very significant subject going on right now because of the benefits it would provide for us, such as environmental, economic, job security and energy security. I believe alternative energy would be beneficial to our society, especially if it is used in transport; there is many other better, leaner and reusable energy sources out there, for example fuel for vehicles pollutes the air and yet can be changed by using a more natural source that doesnt create as much pollution if not any If we were to experiment more with the usage of natural elements, without mentioning that it would be cheaper for all of us in the long run. Evidence Despoiling nature to get at the tiny trickle of oil we have left wont make any significant difference in what we pay at the pump not now and not ever. And it wont make our country any less dependent on foreign fuel. Our thirst for oil is bad for national security, bad for our economy and bad for the environment, America needs to say no to pumping up Big Oils profits and yes to forging a new clean energy economy. -Build the Clean Energy Economy, www.nrdc.org ?(accessed Feb. 25, 2009). The nation is finally realizing that the solutions to these twin crises are linked. That is because nearly everything that is good for the environment and practically everything that is good in the fight against global warming is a job. We can power America through this recession by repowering America with clean energy. We can create millions of jobs that will make our people wealthier and the Earth healthier. (Jones, 2008) The U.S. renewable energy resource base is vast and practically untapped. Available wind energy resources in 12 Midwestern and Rocky Mountain states equal about 2.5 times the entire electricity production of the United States, Complete elimination of CO2 could occur as early as 2040. Elimination of nuclear power could also occur in that time frame. (Makhijani, 2007) Biofuels can provide a number of environmental advantages over conventional fossil fuels-most notably a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Since the transportation sector accounts for about a third of total U.S. emissions of carbon dioxide (an abundant GHG), cleaner transp ortation fuels can play an important role in addressing climate change. -Environmental Benefits of Biofuels, www.doe.gov ?(accessed July 8, 2008) Solar power is a prime choice in developing an affordable and feasible global power source that can substitute fossil fuels in all the worlds climate zones. The solar radiation reaching the earths surface in one year provides more than 10,000 times the worlds yearly energy needs, with the right product, therefore offering customers the type of added value they are looking for, coupled with innovative marketing technologies such as solar electricity should be able to compete with grid power in industrialized countries.- Solar Generation: Solar Electricity for Over One Billion People and Two Million Jobs by 2020, www.epia.org, ?Sep. 2006. Counterarguments It is estimated that there is enough oil and natural gas offshore and in non-wilderness and non-park lands in the United States but currently ruled off-limits for production by the federal government to fuel 50 million cars and heat nearly 100 million homes for the next 25 years. -â€Å"PuttingAmericasEnergyResourcesto Work, www.exxonmobil.com,?June 2008. Taking into account the EIAs [US Energy Information Agency] projected increases in electricity demand, the renewable sector would need to grow 19% per year for 22 years consecutively to meet U.S. demand by the year 2030. Clearly, these targets are overly ambitious and impractical The government cannot create wealth or jobs; all it can do is take from Peter to pay Paul, opening up a job in green industry A by eliminating one in fossil fuel industry B. (Murphy, 2008) We want to be very clear: solar cells, wind turbines, and biomass-for-energy plantations can never replace even a small fraction of the highly reliable nuclear, fossil and hydroelectric power stations. Claims to the contrary are popular, but irresponsible. (Patzek, Pimentel, 2005) The use of corn for ethanol has led to major increases in the price of U.S. beef, chicken, pork, eggs, breads, cereals, and milk a boon to agribusiness and bane to consumers, as global population soars to 8 or 9 billion toward mid-century, and a s we burn more grain as fuel, shortages and production costs could cause grain prices to skyrocket, taking food from the mouths of the worlds poorest people. (Pimentel, 2008). The suns energy is too widely dispersed and the land area required to collect it too vast for solar to become a large-scale power source. The suns energy is too widely dispersed and the land area required to collect it too vast for solar to become a large-scale power source, he solar problem is that no matter how you design the system it will always be inefficient and capture only a small, uneconomical amount of solar energy. (Leher, 2005) We can come to a conclusion that there are many viable alternate sources of energy that we can and should use to supply our energy needs other than fossil fuels and coal, but if we really want to change the energy we use, we need to make a dramatic change. Even if at a first impression we might think it is more expensive to switch to Alternate energy for transport, imagine how it would be like to have cars that don’t need gas to run, in the long run it would be beneficial not only to our wallets but also to our environment, if we really want a change we should start investing in alternative energy now.

Indian Electoral System Explained

Indian Electoral System Explained Federalism is a political term which means a group of members bound by a legal agreement guided by a representative leader. India is a federal nation where the legal agreement is synonymous to the Constitution of India and group of members comprise of the 29 states and 7 union territories. It includes a three tier system where the first is the Central Government, second is the State Government and third tier is in the form of panchayats and municipalities. With an exception of Article 370 (with reference to JK), Article 371 (with reference to North Eastern States and Andhra Pradesh) and the Presidents Rule makes the federalism for India, asymmetric. It is one of the important aspects of a government organization to provide a tool for change, in legal terms this tool is called Elections. An election in a nation provides opportunities to its people to select in terms of their better prospects. The supreme legislative body in India is comprised of The President and the two houses namely Lok Sabha (Lower House or House of the People) and Rajya Sabha (Upper House or Council of States). In India, elections take place at federal, state and local level. Elections are conducted by the Election Commission of India. At national level the Prime minister (Head of the Government) is elected by the members of the Lok Sabha. All the members of Lok Sabha are directly elected through general elections which are held in every five years under normal circumstances by the people of India also called Universal Suffrage which consists of right to vote to the adult citizen which also includes extending the rights to minors and non-citizens, except for the two members which can be nominated by the president of India. The members of the Rajya Sabha, the Upper House are elected by the elected members of the legislative assemblies of the states and the Electoral College for the Union Territories of India. Indian Electoral System The  House of the People (Lok Sabha)  represents citizens of India predicted by the Constitution of India, currently the members of Lok Sabha are 545, out of which 543 are elected for five-year term and two members represent the Anglo-Indian community. The 545 members are elected under the  plurality  electoral system. The  Council of States (Rajya Sabha)  has 245 members, 233 members elected for a six-year term, with one-third retiring every two years. The Vidhan Sabha or the Legislative Assembly is the lower house (in states with bicameral) or the sole house (in unicameral states) of the provincial (state) legislature in the different states of India. A Member of Parliament (M.P.) is a representative of the voters to a parliament. In many countries with bicameral parliaments, the term applies specifically to members of the lower house, as upper houses often have a different title, such as senate, and thus also have different titles for its members, such as senators.A Member of the Legislative Assembly (MLA) or a Member of the Legislature (ML), is a representative elected by the voters of a constituency to the legislature or legislative assembly of a sub-national jurisdiction. The members of Rajya Sabha are indirectly elected, this being achieved by the votes of legislators in the state and union (federal) territories. The twelve nominated members are usually an eclectic mix of eminent artists (including actors), scientists, jurists, sportspersons, businessmen and journalists and common people.[3] The elected members are chosen under the system of  proportional representation  by means of the  Single Transferable Vote. Qualifications for becoming a member: Lok Sabha: According to Indian Constitution for a person to be a member of Lok Sabha he/she should be a citizen of India and must subscribe before the  Election Commission of India  an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule  of  Indian Constitution, the person should have his/her name in the electoral rolls in any part of the country, should be at least twenty five years in age, must possess such other qualifications as may be prescribed in that behalf by or under any law made by  Parliament and should not be proclaimed criminal i.e. they should not be a convict, a confirmed debtor or otherwise disqualified by law. Though it’s not necessary for the person to belong to the same state from which he/she is contesting the election. A person cannot bea member of both Houses of Parliament in which case provision shall be made by Parliament by law for the vacation by a person. A member both of Parliament and of a Legislative Assembly of a State. Rajya Sabha: According to the Article 84 of the Constitution of India, for the membership of Rajya Sabha a person must be a citizen of India, should be thirty or more in terms of age, should subscribe before the Election Commission of India to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule  of  Indian Constitution similar to the Lok Sabha, must possess qualification as prescribed by the law in Indian Constitution, Be elected by the  Legislative Assembly  of States and Union territories by means of  Single transferable vote  through Proportional representation. The twelve members nominated by the president of India are not eligible to vote in the presidential elections. Vidhan Sabha: According to the constitution of India for the membership of Vidhan Sabha the person should not be aged less than 25 years, the person should have a clearance affidavit conforming that there are no criminal procedures or proceedings against him/her, also the person should be mentally and financially stable i.e. should not be bankrupt. The Speaker of Vidhan Sabha acts as a neutral judge and manages all debates and discussions in the house. Usually he is a member of the stronger political party. Lok Sabha Elections: Lok Sabha consists of representatives of people chosen by direct election on the basis of adult suffrage. Consisting of total 552 members out of which 530 are representatives of states remaining 20 members are representative of Union Territories and maximum two members are members of the Anglo Indian Community which are nominated by the president of India. The total elective membership is distributed among the States in such a way that the ratio between the number of seats allotted to each State and the population of the State is, so far as practicable, the same for all States. The total membership of members from each state is selected on the basis of ratio of their population. A total of 131 seats are reserved for Scheduled Castes (84) and Scheduled Tribes (47) representatives. Each Lok Sabha is elected for the term of five years unless it is dissolved in-between. In case of proclamation of Emergency the operating period of Lok Sabha can be extended up-to one year and maximum of six months if the proclamation has ended.

Intelligence Customers :: essays research papers

INTELLIGENCE CUSTOMERS The collapse of the Soviet Union has finally brought the cold war to a conclusion in the 1980’s. This collapse brought about a transfer in the global power structure. Threats such as terrorism, nuclear proliferation, narcotics trafficking and organized crime e became more prominent. The United States’ national security policies were revolutionized to be successful against the new risks towards the Nation. It may be assumed that the best group to handle the new pressures of the world would be the U.S. Intelligence Community, but the unique threats do not harbor the traditional roles that were designed for the U.S. Intelligence Community. Biological hazards such as Anthrax and Small pox, which are both remarkable threats to global and national security, have been collected, analyzed and dealt with by civilian government agencies and academic circles. The Intelligence Community should only use its technology to collect non-traditional intelligence that may infringe on only national and global security issues. There are hundreds of intelligence customers, but there are 14 primaries that come together for national security purposes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To gain a better understanding of intelligence, the term must be defined. Intelligence is when data is collected, organized and becomes useful information. The information is then analyzed and becomes intelligence. The U.S. Intelligence Community supports the President of the United States, the cabinet, Congress, and down to the tactical level of deployed military forces. Each customer is equally as important as the other. The members of the Intelligence Community, also known as intelligence customers are comprised of 14 members: The Defense Intelligence Agency is a major producer and manager of foreign military intelligence. They provide military intelligence to warfighters, defense policymakers and force planners, the Department of Defense and the Intelligence Community in order to support U.S. military planning, operations, and weapon systems acquisition. The National Security Agency is the Nation's cryptologic organization. They coordinate, direct, and perform highly specialized activities to protect U.S. information systems and produce foreign intelligence information. The NSA is one of the most important centers of foreign language analysis and research within the Government. The Federal Bureau of Investigation is the principal investigative arm of the United States Department of Justice. The FBI is to uphold the law through the investigation of violations of federal criminal law; to protect the United States from foreign intelligence and terrorist activities; to provide leadership and law enforcement assistance to federal, state, local, and international agencies; and to perform these responsibilities in a manner that is responsive to the needs of the public and is faithful to the Constitution of the United States.

African Migration Essay

The African origin of early modern humans 200,000–150,000 years ago is now well documented, with archaeological data suggesting that a major migration from tropical east Africa to the Levant took place between 130,000 and 100,000 years ago via the presently hyper-arid Saharan-Arabian desert. The path out of East Africa leads across North Africa, through the Nile corridor, and across the Red Sea, or across the Indian Ocean and the strait of Bab el Mandeb to the Arabian peninsula and beyond to Eurasia. Most of this interconnected landmass of the so-called Old World, the continental area encompassing Africa, Europe, and Asia, received migrants from East Africa by about 1.5 million years ago. This migration was dependent on the occurrence of wetter climate in the region. Whereas there is good evidence that the southern and central Saharan-Arabian desert experienced increased monsoon precipitation during this period, no unequivocal evidence has been found for a corresponding rainfall increase in the northern part of the migration corridor, including the Sinai-Negev land bridge between Africa and Asia. The major feature of world populations through time is their increasing numbers. It is likely that many early human migrations resulted from the pressure of such demographic increases on limited food resources; disease, drought, famine, war, and natural disaster figure among the most important causes of early human migrations. Approximately 100,000 years ago, the first migrations of Homo sapiens out of their African homeland likely coincided with the ability to use spoken language and to control fire. Over the next 87,000 years humans migrated to every continent, encompassing a wide variety of natural environments. The Americas were the last continents to be reached by Homo sapiens, about 13,000 years ago. Why these earliest migrants left Africa to colonize the world is a complex, important question. The answer is likely to be found in a web of interrelated factors centered around human behavior, specifically behavior selected to reduce risk and increase the individuals’ fitness for survival. Calculated migration must have resulted from information sharing, alliance building, memory, and the ability to negotiate— all skills that necessarily accompanied increasingly complex social and cultural groups. The increasing complexity of existence inevitably led hominids out of Africa, resulting in a global distribution of diverse human groups. Increasing population may have prodded the migration of some groups. Armed with the attributes of culture, the distinctive, complex patterns of behavior shared by human groups, humans eventually adapted to and conquered virtually all global environments. Whatever the nature of human origins, whenever or wherever human societies and cultures first appeared, the peopling of our globe has been a product of migration from place to place. Given the small numbers of people and the vast distances they traversed, and considering their technologically limited modes of transportation, the movement of people around the globe seems miraculous. The examples of global colonization described below depended on interactions between people and between people and their environments. Gradually, sometime during the Middle Stone Age (perhaps 100,000 to 200,000 years ago), distinct patterns of interaction among humans and between them and the landscapes in which they lived emerged. Because the distinctive physical and social environments to which humans adapted were themselves constantly changing, cultures too continually changed. That early humans acquired technological and social skills can be inferred from widespread evidence of their material culture—stone tools and utensils, carved figurines, rock and cave art, and the like, dating from about 40,000 years ago—which has been found in most parts of the globe. The development of language unquestionably furthered the social and technological evolution of humans and facilitated systems of reciprocity and social exchange. For example, the division of labor in food production and the exchange and transportation of goods and products were greatly expedited by speech. Being able to assign different tasks to different individuals furthered cooperation and fueled the processes of social and cultural evolution. http://www.learner.org/courses/worldhistory/unit_readings_3.html http://www.learner.org/courses/worldhistory/unit_overview_3.html

Analysis of The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin

Analysis of The Story of an Hour by Kate Chopin The Story of an Hour  by American author Kate Chopin is a mainstay of feminist literary study. Originally published in 1894, the story documents the complicated reaction of Louise Mallard upon learning of her husbands death. It is difficult to discuss The Story of an Hour without addressing the ironic ending. If you havent read the story yet, you might as well, as its only about 1,000 words. The Kate Chopin International Society is kind enough to provide a free, accurate version. At the Beginning, News That Will Devastate  Louise At the beginning of the story, Richards and Josephine believe they must break the news of Brently Mallards death to Louise Mallard as gently as possible. Josephine informs her in broken sentences; veiled hints that revealed in half concealing. Their assumption, not an unreasonable one, is that this unthinkable news will be devastating to Louise and will threaten  her weak heart. A Growing Awareness of Freedom Yet something even more unthinkable lurks in this story: Louises growing awareness of the freedom she will have without Brently. At first, she doesnt consciously allow herself to think about this freedom. The knowledge reaches her wordlessly and symbolically, via the open window through which she sees the open square in front of her house. The repetition of the word open emphasizes possibility and a lack of restrictions. Patches of Blue Sky Amid the Clouds The scene is full of energy  and hope. The trees are all aquiver with the new spring of life, the delicious breath of rain is in the air, sparrows are twittering, and Louise can hear someone singing a song in the distance. She can see patches of blue sky amid the clouds. She observes these patches of blue sky without registering what they might mean. Describing Louises gaze, Chopin writes, It was not a glance of reflection, but rather indicated a suspension of intelligent thought. If she had been thinking intelligently, social norms might have prevented her from such a heretical recognition. Instead, the world offers her veiled hints that she slowly pieces together without even realizing she is doing so. A Force Is Too Powerful to Oppose In fact, Louise resists the impending awareness, regarding it fearfully. As she begins to realize what it is, she strives to beat it back with her will. Yet its force is too powerful to oppose. This story can be uncomfortable to read because, on the surface, Louise seems to be glad that her husband has died. But that isnt quite accurate. She thinks of Brentlys kind, tender hands and the face that had never looked save with love upon her, and she recognizes that she has not finished weeping for him. Her Desire for Self-Determination But his death has made her see something she hasnt seen before and might likely never have seen if he had lived: her desire for self-determination. Once she allows herself to recognize her approaching freedom, she utters the word free over and over again, relishing it. Her fear and her uncomprehending stare are replaced by acceptance and excitement. She looks forward to years to come that would belong to her absolutely. She Would Live for Herself In one of the most important passages of the story, Chopin describes Louises vision of self-determination. Its not so much about getting rid of her husband as it is about being entirely in charge of her own life, body and soul. Chopin writes: There would be no one to live for her during those coming years; she would live for herself. There would be no powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a will upon a fellow-creature. Note the phrase men and women. Louise never catalogs  any specific offenses Brently has committed against her; rather, the implication seems to be that marriage can be stifling for both parties. The Irony of Joy That Kills When Brently Mallard enters the house alive and well in the final scene, his appearance is utterly ordinary. He is a little travel-stained, composedly carrying his grip-sack and umbrella. His mundane appearance contrasts greatly with Louises feverish triumph and her walking down the stairs like a goddess of Victory. When the doctors determine that Louise died of heart disease of joy that kills, the reader immediately recognizes the irony. It seems clear that her shock was not joy over her husbands survival, but rather distress over losing her cherished, newfound freedom. Louise did briefly experience joy the joy of imagining herself in control of her own life. And it was the removal of that intense joy that led to her death.